Basic Guidelines For English Spellings
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Many words are built using a combination of linguistic elements, such as prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms. Whereas prefixes and suffixes adjust the sense of a word or its word class, combining forms differ by contributing to the particular meaning of that word.
Here is a list of combining forms, prefixes, and suffixes together with their meanings and examples.
Combining Form | Meaning | Example(s) |
adeno- | relating to a gland or glands | adenocarcinoma |
-aemia | see -emia | |
agro-, agri- | of or involving agriculture | agro-industry,agribusiness |
-algia | of or involving pain | neuralgia, nostalgia |
allo- | other; different | allotrope, allophone |
amphi- | both; around | amphibian,amphitheatre |
ana-, an- | up; back; again | anabatic,anachronism,Anabaptism |
-androus | having male parts | monandrous |
angio- | of blood or seed vessels | angiography,angiosperm |
ante- | before; in front | antediluvian,anterior |
antho-, -anth | of or relating to flowers | anthophilous,perianth |
anthropho-, -anthropic | of humans | anthropology,philanthropic |
apo- | away from; separate | apocrypha,apocarpous |
aqua- | of or relating to water | aquaculture,aquamarine |
arch- | chief; principal | archbishop, arch-fiend |
archaeo-, archeo- | ancient; prehistoric | archaeology |
arterio- | of or relating to the arteries | arteriosclerosis |
arthro-, arthr- | of or relating to joints | arthroscope,arthritis |
astro- | of stars or space | astronomy,astrophysics |
audio-, audi- | of or relating to hearing or sound | audiovisual, audible |
auto-, aut- | self; spontaneous | autonomous,automatic |
baro-, bar-, -baric | of or relating to pressure | barometer,hyperbaric |
bathy-, batho- | of or relating to depth | bathyscaphe |
bi- | two; twice; every two; lasting two | biathlon, biannual,bicentennial,biennium |
biblio- | of or relating to books | bibliophile,bibliography |
bio- | of or relating to life | biology, biohazard |
-biosis, -biotic | denoting or relating to a mode of life | symbiosis,antibiotic |
brachy-, -brach | short | brachycephalic,amphibrach |
broncho-, bronch- | of or relating to air passages | bronchial,bronchopneumonia |
caco-, cac-, kak- | bad or worst | cacophony,kakistocracy |
calli-, cal- | good, beautiful | callipygian,callisthenics |
carcino- | of or relating to cancer | carcinogenic |
cardio-, cardi-, -cardia | of or relating to the heart | cardiogram,tachycardia |
cata-, cat-, kata- | down(ward); wrongly or badly; completely; against | catadromous,katabatic,catachresis,cataclysm, catapult |
-cele, -coele | swelling; hernia | meningocele |
centi- | one hundredth; one hundred | centilitre, centipede |
-cephalic, -cephalous, cephalo- | of or relating to the head; -headed | brachycephalic,cephalometry,hydrocephalous |
cerato-, cerat- | see kerato- | |
cerebro-, cerebr- | of or relating to the brain | cerebrospinal |
cheiro- | see chiro- | |
chemi-, chemico-, chemo- | of or relating to drugs or chemicals | chemotherapy |
chiro-, cheiro- | of the hand or hands | chiropody,chiromancy |
chlor-, chloro- | green, of or relating to chlorine | chloracne,chloroquine |
chromato-, chromat-, chromo- | color; of colors | chromatic,chromosome |
chrono-, chron- | of or relating to time | chronometer,chronic |
chrys-, chryso- | of or relating to gold | chrysanthemum |
-cide, -cidal | of killing or a killer | regicide, homicide,suicidal |
cine- | of or relating to film | cinematic |
circum- | around; about | circumpolar,circumlocution |
clado-, clad- | of or relating to a branch or branching | cladogram,cladistics |
clin-, -clinal, -cline, -clinic | of, denoting, or relating to a slope | clinometer,geosyncline |
-coele | see -cele | |
contra- | against or opposite; below or beyond | contraband,contrabass |
copro- | of or relating to dung or feces | coprophagous,coprophilia |
cortico-, cortic- | of or relating to a cortex | corticosteroid |
cosmo-, cosm- | of or relating to the world or universe | cosmography |
-cracy | denoting a form of government or rule | autocracy,democracy |
cranio-, crani- | of or relating to the skull | craniotomy |
-crat | denoting a member or supporter of a form of government or rule | plutocrat,technocrat |
-cratic | of or relating to a form of government or rule | bureaucratic,theocratic |
cryo- | of or involving cold | cryosurgery,cryogenics |
crypto-, crypt- | concealed; secret | cryptogram, crypto-fascist |
cupr-, cupro- | of or relating to copper | cupro-nickel |
cyano-, cyan- | of or relating to blue or dark blue | cyanosis |
cyber- | of or relating to electronic communications | cyberspace,cybernaut |
cyno- | of or relating to dogs | cynodont |
cysto-, cyst- | of or relating to the bladder | cystotomy |
-cyte, cyt- | denoting a mature cell | lymphocyte |
cyto- | of a cell or cells | cytology, cytoplasm |
deca-, dec- | ten | decahedron,p |
deci- | tenth | decilitre |
demi- | half; inferior or partial | demitasse,demigod |
dendro-, dendron | denoting or relating to a tree or trees | dendrology,rhododendron |
dermato, dermat- | of or relating to the skin | dermatitis |
dextro- | on or to the right | dextrorotatory |
di- | twice; two | dichromatic, dioxide |
dia-, di- | through or across; apart | diameter, diakinesis |
dorsi-, dorso- | of, to, or on the back | dorsiventral |
-drome | denoting a place for running or racing; running or proceeding a certain way | hippodrome,palindrome |
dys- | bad; difficult | dyspepsia,dyslexia,dysfunctional |
eco- | relating to ecology | ecosystem,ecoterrorism |
ecto- | outer; external | ectoderm,ectoplasm |
-ectomy | denoting a removal of a part | appendectomy; compare -otomy |
-emia, -hemia, -aemia, -haemia | denoting presence of a substance in the blood | septicaemia,leukaemia |
encephalo-, encephal- | of or relating to the brain | encephalopathy |
endo-, end- | internal; within | endoderm,endogenous |
entero-, enter- | of or relating to the intestine | enterovirus,enteritis |
epi-, ep- | upon; above; in addition | epitaph, epicotyl,epiphenomenon |
erythro-, erythr- | red | erythrocyte,erythromycin |
ethno- | of or relating to a people or nation | ethnocentric,ethnology |
eu- | good; well; easily | eupeptic,euphemism,euphony |
eury- | denoting a wide variety or range | eurytopic |
exo- | outside | exobiology,exoskeleton,exoteric |
-facient | producing a specified action or state | abortifacient |
-faction | denoting a specified action or state | liquefaction,satisfaction |
-ferous, -iferous | having, bearing or containing | pestiferous,Carboniferous |
ferro-, ferr- | containing iron | ferroconcrete,ferromagnetic |
-fic, -fication | making | terrific,simplification |
fluvio- | of or relating to a river or rivers | fluvioglacial |
-fuge | expelling or dispelling | vermifuge,centrifuge |
-fy | make | satisfy, mollify |
Gallo- | French | Gallo-German |
-gamous, -gamy | of or relating to marriage or reproduction | exogamous,heterogamy |
gastr-, gastro- | of or relating to the stomach | gastrectomy,gastroenteritis |
-gate | denoting an actual or alleged scandal (suggestive of "Watergate") | Irangate, Travelgate |
-gen | denoting a substance producing or produced | allergen, cultigen |
-genic | producing, produced, or suited to | carcinogenic,iatrogenic,photogenic |
-genous | producing; inducing; originating in | erogenous,endogenous |
-geny | denoting a mode of production | orogeny, phylogeny |
geo-, ge- | of or relating to the earth | geochemistry,geomorphic |
geront-, geronto-, gero-, ger- | of or relating to old age | gerontocracy,geriatrics |
glyco-, glyc- | of, relating to, or producing sugar | glycogenesis,glycoside |
-gon | having a certain number of angles | hexagon, pentagon |
-gony | denoting a kind of origin or reproduction | cosmogony |
-gram | denoting something written or recorded | cryptogram,telegram |
-graph | denoting something written or drawn; denoting a recording instrument | autograph,seismograph |
-grapher | denoting a person concerned with a subject | geographer |
-graphic | of a subject or study | demographic,oceanographic |
-graphy | denoting a science or technique, a style, or a kind of writing | geography,radiography,calligraphy,hagiography |
gymno-, gymn- | naked | gymnosperm,gymnasium |
gynaeco- | of or relating to women | gynaecology |
-gynous, -gyne | having female organs | epigynous |
gyro- | of or relating to rotation | gyroscope,gyrostabilizer |
haemato-, haemo- | see hemo- | |
-haemia | see -emia | |
hagio-, hagi- | of or relating to saints or saintliness | hagiography |
halo-, hal- | of or relating to salinity or halogens | halophile |
helio- | of or relating to the sun | heliocentric,heliometer |
hemato-, haemato-, hemo- | of or relating to blood | haematoma |
hemi- | half | hemisphere,hemistich |
-hemia | see -emia | |
hemo- | see hemato- | |
hepato-, hepat- | of or relating to the liver | hepatomegaly,hepatitis |
hepta- | seven | heptagon,heptathlon |
hetero-, heter- | different; diverse | heterosexual,heterogeneous |
hexa-, hex- | six | hexagon, hexagram |
hiero-, hier- | sacred; holy | hierophant,hieroglyphic |
histo-, hist- | of or relating to organic tissue | histochemistry,histocompatibility |
holo-, hol- | whole; complete | holocaust, holistic |
homo-, hom- | same; relating to homosexual love | homogeneous,homoerotic |
homeo- | similar | homeopathy |
hydr-, hydro- | of or relating to water; of accumulation of fluid | hydraulic,hydroelectric,hydrocephalus |
hyper- | over or beyond; exceeding; excessively | hyperborean,hypersonic,hyperactive |
hypno-, hypn- | relating to sleep or hypnosis | hypnagogic,hypnotherapy |
hypo-, hyp- | below or lower | hypodermic,hypoglycaemia,hypaesthesia |
iatro-, -iatry, -iatric | of or relating to doctors or medical treatment | iatrogenic,psychiatry |
ichthyo-, ichthy- | of or relating to fish | ichthyosaur |
icono-, icon- | of or relating to images or icons | iconology,iconoclast |
ideo- | of or relating to an idea or form | ideology, ideograph |
idio- | distinct; private; personal | idiotype, idiopathic |
infra- | below or under | infraorder,infrastructure |
inter- | between or among; mutually | intercollegiate,interdependent |
intra- | on the inside or within | intrados, intramural |
intro- | into or inwards | introversion,intromission |
-ism | denoting an action, result, or quality; denoting a system or principle; denoting a peculiarity in language; denoting a condition | baptism, exorcism,barbarism,feminism,Americanism,alcoholism |
iso- | equal | isobar, isosceles,isomer |
kak- | see caco- | |
kerato-, kerat-, cerato-, cerat- | of or relating to horny tissue or the cornea | keratin, keratotomy |
kilo- | one thousand | kilometre |
kineto-, kinet-, -kinesis | of or relating to movement | kinetoscope,kinetics,hyperkinesis |
labio- | of or relating to the lips | labiodental |
lacto-, lact- | of or relating to milk, lactic acid, or lactose | lacto-vegetarian,lactobacillus |
-later | denoting a worshiper | idolater |
-latry | denoting a kind of worship | idolatry, Mariolatry |
lepto-, lept- | small; narrow | leptocephalic |
leuko-, leuk-, leuco- | white | leukaemia,leukocyte |
ligni, ligno-, lign- | of or relating to wood | lignify,lignocellulose |
lipo-, lip- | relating to fat or lipids | liposuction,lipoprotein |
litho-, lith-, -lith, -lithic, -lite | denoting or relating to a stone, a kidney stone, or a mineral | lithograph,batholith, lithotomy,sodalite |
-log, -logue | denoting a discourse or compilation | dialogue,catalogue,monologue |
-logist, -loger | denoting a person skilled or involved in a branch of study or art | biologist, astrologer |
logo- | of or relating to words | logomachy |
-logue, -log | denoting discourse or compilation of a type | catalog, dialogue |
-logy, -ology, -logical, -logic | denoting or relating to a subject of study or type of speech or language | psychology, eulogy,trilogy, philological |
-lysis, lyso-, lys- | denoting disintegration or decomposition | hydrolysis,haemolysis,autolysis |
-lytic, -lyte | corresponding to nouns ending in -lysis | hydrolytic |
macro-, macr- | long; large | macroevolution,macromolecule,macroeconomics |
mal- | unpleasantly; badly; improperly; not | malodorous,malfunction,malpractice,maladroit |
-mancy, -mantic | denoting or relating to divination by a specified means | geomancy,necromantic |
mega- | very large; by a factor of one million | megalith,megadeath |
megalo-, megal- | abnormally large or great | megaloblast,megalopolis |
-meister | skilled or prominent in a specified activity | schlockmeister,gagmeister |
melano-, melan- | black or dark | melanoma,melanism |
mero- | partly; partial | meronym |
-merous | having a specified number of (biological) parts | pentamerous |
meso-, mes- | middle; intermediate | meso-America,mesomorph |
meta-, met- | denoting a change; denoting position behind, after, or beyond; denoting something of a higher or second order | metamorphosis,metacarpus,metalanguage |
-meter, -metric, -metrical | measuring; having a particular measure | thermometer,hexameter |
-metry | denoting procedures and systems involving measurement | calorimetry,geometry |
micro-, micr- | small; reduced; one millionth | micromini,microprocessor,microfarad |
milli- | a thousand (chiefly denoting a factor of one thousandth) | milligram, millipede |
mis- | wrongly; badly; unsuitably | misapply,mismanage,misname |
-monger | dealer or trader; promoter of some activity or feeling | fishmonger,warmonger |
-morph, -morphic, -morphism, morpho- | having, denoting, or relating to a specified form or character | endomorph,mesomorphic,morphological |
-mycin | in names of antibiotics derived from fungi | streptomycin |
myco- | relating to fungi | mycology |
myo-, my- | of or relating to muscles | myocardium,myalgia |
nano- | very small; denoting a factor of 10?? | nanoplankton,nanosecond |
narco- | of a state of insensibility; of narcotic drugs or drug traffic | narcolepsy,narcoterrorism |
naso- | of or relating to the nose | nasogastric |
necro- | relating to a corpse or death | necromancy,necrophilia |
neo- | new; a new or revived form | neonate,neoconservative |
neuro-, neur- | relating to nerves or the nervous system | neuroanatomy,neurohormone |
-nomy | an area of knowledge or the laws governing it | astronomy,gastronomy |
odonto-, -odon, -odont | relating to a tooth or teeth; having teeth of a particular type | odontology,odontophore,mastodon |
-oid | denoting resemblance | asteroid, rhomboid,factoid |
oleo-, ole- | relating to or containing oil | oleomargarine,oleaginous |
oligo-, olig- | having or involving few | oligopoly,
oligarchy |
-ology | see -logy | |
-oma | denoting tumors or growths | carcinoma |
onco- | of or relating to tumors or cancer | oncology |
-ont, ont- | denoting or relating to an individual or cell of a specified type | schizont,
ontology |
onto-, ont- | of or relating to existence | ontology |
-onym, -onymous, -onymic | denoting or relating to names | acronym,synonymous,patronymic |
oo- | of or denoting an egg or ovum | oocyte |
-opia | denoting a visual disorder | myopia, presbyopia |
-opsy | denoting an examination | biopsy |
ornitho-, ornith- | relating to or like a bird or birds | ornithology,ornithopter |
oro- | of or relating to mountains | orogeny |
ortho-, orth- | straight; correct | orthodontics,orthodox |
osteo-, oste- | of or relating to the bones | osteoporosis,osteopathy |
oto-, ot- | of or relating to the ears | otolaryngology,otoscope |
ovi-, ovo- | of or relating to eggs or ova | oviparous |
oxy-, ox- | denoting sharpness; having oxygen | oxymoron,oxyacetylene |
paedo- | see pedo- | |
paleo-, palaeo- | older or ancient | Palaeolithic,palaeoclimatology |
pan- | all-inclusive | pan-African,pansexual,pantheistic |
panto- | all; universal | pantograph,pantomime |
para-, par- | beside or adjacent to; analogous to | parathyroid,paramilitary |
para- | protecting or warding off | parasol, parachute |
-parous | bearing offspring or reproducing in a specified manner | multiparous,viviparous |
-path | practitioner of curative treatment; sufferer from a disease | homeopath,psychopath |
patho- | relating to disease | pathogenesis,pathology |
-pathy | denoting feelings; denoting disorder; relating to curative treatment | sympathy,neuropathy,hydropathy |
-pede, -pedal | denoting or relating to the feet | centipede, bipedal |
pedo-, ped-, paedo- | of or relating to a child or children | paediatric,paedophile |
pedo- | of or relating to soil or soil types | pedogenic |
penta- | five; having five | pentagram,pentadactyl |
per- | through or all over; completely; to destruction or ill effect | pervade, perfect,pervert |
peri- | round or about; nearest | pericardium,perihelion |
-petal | seeking or moving toward | centripetal |
petro-, petr- | of or relating to rock; relating to petroleum | petrography,petrochemical |
-phagous, -phage | feeding on a particular food | coprophagous,bacteriophage |
-phagy | denoting eating of a particular food | anthropophagy |
-phasia | denoting a type of speech disorder | aphasia |
pheno-, phen-, -phane | derived from benzene; showing | phenobarbital,phenotype |
philo-, phil-, -phile | denoting a liking for a specific thing | philosopher,philanthrope,bibliophile |
-phil | having a chemical affinity | acidophil |
-philia, -phily | denoting (esp. abnormal) fondness or inclination | paedophilia,spasmophilia |
-phobe | having a fear or dislike of something | homophobe,xenophobe |
-phobia | extreme or irrational fear or dislike | arachnophobia,photophobia |
-phone | denoting a sound instrument; denoting a speaker of a specific language | saxophone,francophone |
phono-, phon-, -phony | relating to sound | phonograph,phonics |
-phore | denoting an agent or bearer | ionophore,semaphore |
photo-, phot- | relating to light; relating to photography | photosensitive,photojournalism |
phren-, -phrenia, -phrenic | of or relating to the mind | phrenology,schizophrenia |
phyllo-, phyll-, -phyllous | of or relating to a leaf or leaves | phyllotaxis |
phylo- | of or relating to a race, tribe, or species | phylogeny |
physio-, phys- | relating to nature; relating to physiology | physiocrat,physiotherapy |
-phyte | denoting a plant or plantlike organism | epiphyte |
phyto- | of or relating to plants | phytogeography |
pisci-, pisc- | of or relating to fish | pisciculture |
-plasty, -plast, -plastic | molding, grafting, or formation | rhinoplasty |
pleo-, pleio-, plio- | more | pleonasm, Pliocene |
pneumato- | of or containing air; relating to the spirit | pneumatophore,pneumatology |
pneumo-, pneum- | of or relating to the lungs or to the presence of air or gas | pneumogastric,pneumothorax |
-pod, -pode, -podous, pod- | of or like a foot | tripod, podagra |
poly- | many, much | polyandry,polychrome |
pre-, prae- | before | precede,precocious,preadolescent |
proto-, prot- | original; primitive; first or anterior | prototype,protozoan,protogalaxy |
pseudo-, pseud- | purported or false; resembling or imitating | pseudoscience,pseudohallucination |
psycho- | relating to the mind or psychology | psychometrics,psychobabble |
ptero-, -pter | relating to or having wings | pterosaur,helicopter |
pyro-, pyr- | of or relating to fire; denoting a mineral or compound formed or affected by heat or having a fiery color | pyromania,pyrophosphate |
quasi- | apparently but not really; partly or almost | quasi-scientific,quasicrystalline |
radio-, radi- | denoting radio waves or broadcasting; connected with radioactivity; belonging to the radius | radiogram,radiogenic, radio-carpal |
retro- | denoting backward or reciprocal action; denoting location behind | retrogression,retrosternal |
rhino- | of or relating to the nose | rhinoplastic |
-rrhea, -rrhoea, rheo- | discharge, flow | diarrhoea,logorrhoea,rheostat |
rhodo-, rhod- | roselike, rosy | rhodochrosite,rhododendron |
sapro-, sapr- | relating to putrefaction or decay | saprogenic,saprophyte |
sarco-, sarc- | of or relating to flesh | sarcoma,sarcophagus |
schizo-, schiz- | divided or split; relating to schizophrenia | schizocarp,schizotype |
sclero-, -scler- | hard, hardened, or hardening | scleroderma,arteriosclerosis |
-sect, -section | of cutting or dividing | bisect, vivisection |
semi- | half; twice; partly | semicircle, semi-annual, semi-conscious |
sero- | relating to serum; involving a serous membrane | serotype, serositis |
sesqui- | denoting one and a half | sesquicentenary |
Sino- | Chinese, Chinese and … | Sino-Soviet,Sinologist |
socio- | relating to society; relating to sociology | socio-economic,sociolinguistics |
somato- | of or relating to the human body | somatotype |
-some | denoting a part of the body or of a cell | chromosome |
somn- | of or relating to sleep | somnolent,somniferous |
sono- | of or relating to sound | sonogram |
spiro- | spiral or in a spiral | spirochaete |
spiro- | relating to breathing | spirometer |
-stasis, -static | slowing down or stopping | haemostasis |
-stat | denoting instruments, etc., maintaining a controlled state | rheostat, haemostat |
steno- | narrow | stenography,stenosis |
stereo- | of solid forms with three dimensions; of three-dimensional effect | stereography,stereophonic |
strati-, strat- | of or relating to layers or strata | stratigraphy |
sub- (suc-, suf-, etc.) | lower; somewhat; secondary; supporting | subalpine,subordinate,subconscious,sublet, subvention |
super-, sur- | above or beyond; to a great degree; extra large; of a higher kind | superstructure,superabundant,supercontinent,superfamily |
supra- | above; beyond | suprarenal,supranational |
sur- | see super- | |
syn-, sym-, syl- | united; acting or considered together | synthesis,sympathy,syllogism |
tacho-, tachy- | relating to speed; rapid | tachometer;tachycardia |
tauto- | same | tautology |
taxo-, taxi-, tax- | of or relating to grouping or arranging | taxonomy |
tele-, tel- | of or at a distance; operating over a distance; relating to television; done over the telephone | telekinesis,telemeter,televangelist,telemarketing |
tetra- | four, having four | tetragram |
theo-, the- | relating or God or to deities | theocentric, theistic |
thermo-, -therm, -thermy | relating to heat | thermodynamics |
-tome | denoting an instrument for cutting; denoting a section or fragment | microtome,myotome |
-tomy | cutting | episiotomy |
topo-, top- | of or relating to places or forms | topography,topology |
toxi-, toxico-, toxo-, -toxic | of or relating to poisons | toxicology |
trans- | across or beyond; on or to the other side; through; going beyond | transcontinental,transalpine,transonic,transform,transcendent |
-trix | denoting a woman (where a man would be denoted -tor) | executrix,dominatrix |
-trophic | relating to nutrition; relating to maintenance or regulation | oligotrophic,gonadotrophic |
-tropic, trop- | turning toward; affecting; maintaining or regulating | heliotropic,psychotropic |
ultra- | beyond; extreme | ultramontane,ultraconservative |
ur- | primitive, original, or earliest | urtext |
urano-, uran- | relating to the heavens; relating to uranium | uranography,uraninite |
-urgy, -urge | of work; one who works | thaumaturgy,demiurge |
-uria | designating that a substance is present in the urine, esp. in excess | phenylketonuria |
uro- | of or relating to urine or the urinary organs | urogenital |
vaso-, vas- | of or relating to vessels, esp. blood vessels | vasodilation |
vermi- | relating to or like a worm | vermiform |
-vorous, -vore | feeding on | carnivorous,omnivore |
xeno-, xen- | relating to foreigners; other or different | xenophobia,xenograft |
xero-, xer- | dry | xeroderma,xeriscaping |
xylo-, xyl- | of or relating to wood | xylophagous,xylophone |
zoo- | of animals; relating to animal life | zoogeography |
zygo- | relating to joining or pairing | zygodactyl |